textual/docs/introduction.md

Introduction

Welcome to the Textual Introduction!

By the end of this page you should have a solid understanding of app development with Textual.

!!! quote

This page goes in to more detail than you may expect from an introduction. I like documentation to have complete working examples and I wanted the first app to be realistic. 

— **Will McGugan** (creator of Rich and Textual)

Stopwatch Application

We're going to build a stopwatch application. It should show a list of stopwatches with a time display the user can start, stop, and reset. We also want the user to be able to add and remove stopwatches as required.

This will be a simple yet fully featured app — you could distribute this app if you wanted to!

Here's what the finished app will look like:

Get the code

If you want to try the finished Stopwatch app and following along with the code first make sure you have textual installed then check out the Textual GitHub repository:

=== "HTTPS"

```bash
git clone https://github.com/Textualize/textual.git
```

=== "SSH"

```bash
git clone git@github.com:Textualize/textual.git
```

=== "GitHub CLI"

```bash
gh repo clone Textualize/textual
```

With the repository cloned, navigate to docs/examples/introduction and run stopwatch.py.

cd textual/docs/examples/introduction
python stopwatch.py

Type hints (in brief)

!!! tip inline end

Type hints are entirely optional in Textual. We've included them in the example code but it's up to you wether you add them to your own projects.

We're a big fan of Python type hints at Textualize. If you haven't encountered type hinting, its a way to express the types of your data, parameters, and return values. Type hinting allows tools like Mypy to catch potential bugs before your code runs.

The following function contains type hints:

def repeat(text: str, count: int) -> str:
    """Repeat a string a given number of times."""
    return text * count

• Parameter types follow a colon. So text: str indicates that text requires a string and count: int means that count requires an integer.
• Return types follow ->. So -> str: indicates this method returns a string.

The App class

The first step in building a Textual app is to import and extend the App class. Here's our basic app class with a few methods we will cover below.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch01.py"

If you run this code, you should see something like the following:

Hit the ++d++ key to toggle dark mode.

Hit ++ctrl+c++ to exit the app and return to the command prompt.

A closer look at the App class

Let's examine stopwatch01.py in more detail.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch01.py"

The first line imports the Textual App class. The second line imports two builtin widgets: Footer which shows available keys and Header which shows a title and the current time.

Widgets are re-usable components responsible for managing a part of the screen. We will cover how to build such widgets in this introduction.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch01.py"

The App class is where most of the logic of Textual apps is written. It is responsible for loading configuration, setting up widgets, handling keys, and more.

There are three methods in our stopwatch app currently.

• compose() is where we construct a user interface with widgets. The compose() method may return a list of widgets, but it is generally easier to yield them (making this method a generator). In the example code we yield instances of the widget classes we imported, i.e. the header and the footer.

• on_load() is an event handler method. Event handlers are called by Textual in response to external events like keys and mouse movements, and internal events needed to manage your application. Event handler methods begin with on_ followed by the name of the event (in lower case). Hence, on_load it is called in response to the Load event which is sent just after the app starts. We're using this event to call App.bind() which connects a key to an action.

• action_toggle_dark() defines an action method. Actions are methods beginning with action_ followed by the name of the action. The call to bind() in on_load() binds this the ++d++ key to this action. The body of this method flips the state of the dark boolean to toggle dark mode.

!!! note

You may have noticed that `action_toggle_dark` doesn't do anything to explicitly change the _screen_, and yet hitting ++d++ updates the terminal. Textual is able to detect changes that should update the screen.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch01.py"

The last few lines create an instance of the app at the module scope. Followed by a call to run() within a __name__ == "__main__" block. This is so that we could import app if we want to. Or we could run it with python stopwatch01.py.

Designing a UI with widgets

The header and footer are builtin widgets. For our Stopwatch application we will need to build custom widgets.

Let's sketch out a design for our app:

--8<-- "docs/images/stopwatch.excalidraw.svg"

We will need to build a Stopwatch widget composed of the following child widgets:

• A "Start" button
• A "Stop" button
• A "Reset" button
• A time display

Textual has a builtin Button widget which takes care of the first three components. All we need to build is the time display widget which will show the elapsed time in HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS format, and the stopwatch widget itself.

Let's add those to the app. Just a skeleton for now, we will add the rest of the features as we go.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch02.py"

Extending widget classes

We've imported two new widgets in this code: Button, which creates a clickable button, and Static which is a base class for a simple control. We've also imported Container from textual.layout. As the name suggests, Container is a Widget which contains other widgets. We will use this container to create a scrolling list of stopwatches.

We're extending Static as a foundation for our TimeDisplay widget. There are no methods on this class yet.

The Stopwatch class also extends Static to define a new widget. This class has a compose() method which yields its child widgets, consisting of three Button objects and a single TimeDisplay. These are all we need to build a stopwatch as in the sketch.

The Button constructor takes a label to be displayed in the button ("Start", "Stop", or "Reset"). Additionally some of the buttons set the following parameters:

• id is an identifier we can use to tell the buttons apart in code and apply styles. More on that later.
• variant is a string which selects a default style. The "success" variant makes the button green, and the "error" variant makes it red.

Composing the widgets

To see our widgets with we first need to yield them from the app's compose() method:

The new line in Stopwatch.compose() yields a single Container object which will create a scrolling list of stopwatches. When classes contain other widgets (like Container) they will typically accept their child widgets as positional arguments. We want to start the app with three stopwatches, so we construct three Stopwatch instances and pass them to the container's constructor.

The unstyled app

Let's see what happens when we run "stopwatch02.py".

The elements of the stopwatch application are there. The buttons are clickable and you can scroll the container but it doesn't look like the sketch. This is because we have yet to apply any styles to our new widgets.

Writing Textual CSS

Every widget has a styles object with a number of attributes that impact how the widget will appear. Here's how you might set white text and a blue background for a widget:

self.styles.background = "blue"
self.styles.color = "white"

!!! info inline end

Don't worry if you have never worked with CSS before. The dialect of CSS we use is greatly simplified over web based CSS and easy to learn!

While its possible to set all styles for an app this way, it is rarely necessary. Textual has support for CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), a technology used by web browsers. CSS files are data files loaded by your app which contain information about styles to apply to your widgets.

Let's add a CSS file to our application.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch03.py"

Adding the css_path attribute to the app constructor tells textual to load the following file when it starts the app:

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch03.css"

If we run the app now, it will look very different.

This app looks much more like our sketch. Textual has read style information from stopwatch03.css and applied it to the widgets.

CSS basics

CSS files contain a number of declaration blocks. Here's the first such block from stopwatch03.css again:

Stopwatch {
    layout: horizontal;
    background: $panel-darken-1;
    height: 5;
    padding: 1;
    margin: 1;
}

The first line tells Textual that the styles should apply to the Stopwatch widget. The lines between the curly brackets contain the styles themselves.

Here's how this CSS code changes how the Stopwatch widget is displayed.

--8<-- "docs/images/stopwatch_widgets.excalidraw.svg"

• layout: horizontal aligns child widgets horizontally from left to right.
• background: $panel-darken-1 sets the background color to $panel-darken-1. The $ prefix picks a pre-defined color from the builtin theme. There are other ways to specify colors such as "blue" or rgb(20,46,210).
• height: 5 sets the height of our widget to 5 lines of text.
• padding: 1 sets a padding of 1 cell around the child widgets.
• margin: 1 sets a margin of 1 cell around the Stopwatch widget to create a little space between widgets in the list.

Here's the rest of stopwatch03.css which contains further declaration blocks:

TimeDisplay {
    content-align: center middle;
    opacity: 60%;
    height: 3;
}

Button {
    width: 16;    
}

#start {
    dock: left;
}

#stop {
    dock: left;
    display: none;
}

#reset {
    dock: right;
}

The TimeDisplay block aligns text to the center (content-align), fades it slightly (opacity), and sets its height (height) to 3 lines.

The Button block sets the width (width) of buttons to 16 cells (character widths).

The last 3 blocks have a slightly different format. When the declaration begins with a # then the styles will be applied to widgets with a matching "id" attribute. We've set an ID on the Button widgets we yielded in compose. For instance the first button has id="start" which matches #start in the CSS.

The buttons have a dock style which aligns the widget to a given edge. The start and stop buttons are docked to the left edge, while the reset button is docked to the right edge.

You may have noticed that the stop button (#stop in the CSS) has display: none;. This tells Textual to not show the button. We do this because we don't want to dsplay the stop button when the timer is not running. Similarly we don't want to show the start button when the timer is running. We will cover how to manage such dynamic user interfaces in the next section.

Dynamic CSS

We want our Stopwatch widget to have two states: a default state with a Start and Reset button; and a started state with a Stop button. When a stopwatch is started it should also have a green background and bold text.

We can accomplish this with a CSS class. Not to be confused with a Python class, a CSS class is like a tag you can add to a widget to modify its styles.

Here's the new CSS:

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch04.css"

These new rules are prefixed with .started. The . indicates that .started refers to a CSS class called "started". The new styles will be applied only to widgets that have this CSS class.

Some of the new styles have more than one selector separated by a space. The space indicates that the rule should match the second selector if it is a child of the first. Let's look at one of these styles:

.started #start {
    display: none
}

The purpose of this CSS is to hide the start button when the stopwatch has started.

The .started selector matches any widget with a "started" CSS class. While "#start" matches a child widget with an ID of "start". So it matches the Start button only for Stopwatches in a started state.

The rule is "display: none" which tells Textual to hide the button.

Manipulating classes

Modifying a widget's CSS classes it a convenient way to modify visuals without introducing a lot of display related code which tends to be hard to maintain.

You can add and remove CSS classes with the add_class() and remove_class() methods. We will use these methods to connect the started state to the Start / Stop buttons.

The following code adds a event handler for the Button.Pressed event.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch04.py"

The on_button_pressed event handler is called when the user clicks a button. This method adds the "started" class when the "start" button was clicked, and removes the class when the "stop" button is clicked.

If you run "stopwatch04.py" now you will be able to toggle between the two states by clicking the first button:

Reactive attributes

A reoccurring theme in Textual is that you rarely need to explicitly update a widget. It is possible: you can call [refresh()][textual.widget.Widget.refresh] to display new data. However, Textual prefers to do this automatically via reactive attributes.

You can declare a reactive attribute with textual.reactive.Reactive. Let's use this feature to create a timer that displays elapsed time and keeps it updated.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch05.py"

We have added two reactive attributes: start_time will contain the time in seconds when the stopwatch was started, and time will contain time to be displayed on the Stopwatch.

Both attributes will be available on self as if you had assigned them in __init__. If you write to either of these attributes the widget will update automatically.

!!! info

The `monotonic` function in this example is imported from the standard library `time` module. It is similar to `time.time` but won't go backwards if the system clock is changed.

The first argument to Reactive may be a default value or a callable that returns the default value. The default for start_time is monotonic. When TimeDisplay is mounted, the start_time attribute will be assigned the result of monotonic().

The time attribute has a simple float as the default value, so self.time will be 0 on start.

!!! info

The `time` attribute is created with `Reactive.init` which calls watch methods when the widget is mounted. See below for an explanation of watch methods.

In the on_mount method the call to set_interval creates a timer object which runs self.update_time sixty times a second. This update_time method calculates the time elapsed since the widget started and assigns it to self.time. Which brings us to one of Reactive's super-powers.

If you implement a method that begins with watch_ followed by the name of a reactive attribute (making it a watch method), that method will be called when the attribute is modified.

Because watch_time watches the time attribute, when we update self.time 60 times a second we also implicitly call watch_time which converts the elapsed time in to a string and updates the widget with a call to self.update.

The end result is that the Stopwatch widgets show the time elapsed since the widget was created:

We've seen how we can update widgets with a timer. But we still need to wire up the buttons so we can operate Stopwatches independently.

Wiring buttons

We need to be able to start, stop, and reset each stopwatch independently. We can do this by adding a few more methods to the TimeDisplay class.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch06.py"

Here's a summary of the changes made to TimeDisplay.

• We've added a total reactive attribute to store the total time elapsed between clicking that start and stop buttons.
• The call to set_interval has grown a pause=True argument which starts the timer in pause mode (when a timer is paused it won't run until resume() is called). This is because we don't want the time to update until the user hits the start button.
• We've stored the result of set_interval which returns a Timer object. We will use this later to resume the timer when we start the Stopwatch.
• We've added start(), stop(), and reset() methods.

The on_button_pressed method on Stopwatch has grown some code to manage the time display when the user clicks a button. Let's look at that in detail:

    def on_button_pressed(self, event: Button.Pressed) -> None:
        """Event handler called when a button is pressed."""
        button_id = event.button.id
        time_display = self.query_one(TimeDisplay)
        if button_id == "start":
            time_display.start()
            self.add_class("started")
        elif button_id == "stop":
            time_display.stop()
            self.remove_class("started")
        elif button_id == "reset":
            time_display.reset()

This code supplies missing features and makes our app useful. We've made the following changes.

• The first line retrieves the button's ID, which we will use to decide what to do in response.
• The second line calls query_one to get a reference to the TimeDisplay widget.
• We call the method on TimeDisplay that matches the pressed button.
• We add the "started" class when the Stopwatch is started, and remove it when it is stopped. This will update the Stopwatch visuals via CSS.

If you run stopwatch06.py you will be able to use the stopwatches independently.

The only remaining feature of the Stopwatch app let to implement is the ability to add and remove timers.

Dynamic widgets

It's convenient to build a user interface with the compose method. We may also want to add or remove widgets while the app is running.

To add a new child widget call mount() on the parent. To remove a widget, call it's remove() method.

Let's use these to implement adding and removing stopwatches to our app.

--8<-- "docs/examples/introduction/stopwatch.py"

We've added two new actions: action_add_stopwatch to add a new stopwatch, and action_remove_stopwatch to remove the last stopwatch. The on_load handler binds these actions to the ++a++ and ++r++ keys.

The action_add_stopwatch method creates and mounts a new Stopwatch instance. Note the call to query_one with a CSS selector of "#timers" which gets the timer's container via its ID (assigned in compose). Once mounted, the new Stopwatch will appear in the terminal. That last line in action_add_stopwatch calls scroll_visible which will scroll the container to make the new Stopwatch visible (if necessary).

The action_remove_stopwatch calls query with a CSS selector of "Stopwatch" which gets all the Stopwatch widgets. If there are stopwatches then the action calls last() to get the last stopwatch, and remove() to remove it.

If you run stopwatch.py now you can add a new stopwatch with the ++a++ key and remove a stopwatch with ++r++.

What next?

Congratulations on building your first Textual application! This introduction has covered a lot of ground. If you are the type that prefers to learn a framework by coding, feel free. You could tweak stopwatch.py or look through the examples.

Read the guide for the full details on how to build sophisticated TUI applications with Textual.